![]() With this, forests and forest landscapes may lose their characteristic structural and ecological features, and societies worldwide face diminishing levels of ecosystem services provided by forest landscapes. Tropical forests, for example, are home to over two-thirds of the Earth’s terrestrial biodiversity and they are facing significant threats from human activities as well as climate change (Gardner et al. Environmental and climate changes are rapidly altering the growth, survival, and regeneration conditions for forest ecosystems with direct and dramatic impacts on 3.2 billion people, in particular the most vulnerable (IPBES Land degradation assessment collaboration 2018). An estimated 10 million hectares of forest area have been lost between 20 (FAO and UNEP 2020) and an even larger amount is estimated to be degraded. ![]() Restoration should complement, not undermine, ecosystem conservation efforts.However, forest landscapes are under pressure with the loss of forest areas by conversion to other land uses and degradation of existing forests, and reduced biodiversity.
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